While Spirulina primarily exerts antidiabetic effects through anti-inflammatory pathways, modulation of insulin signaling, and inhibition of -amylase and -glucosidase, red alg-derived peptides provide complementary enzymatic targets, enhancing incretin (GLP-1 and GIP) hormone activity, and vasodilation ( 3.3 The role of Spirulina in cardiovascular diseases Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, representing a significant public health and economic burden ( Preclinical studies demonstrate Spirulina's vascular function-improving effects
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4A and C), consistent with a previous study 35
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FIGURE 5 Ferroptosis, a regulatory cell death mode, is characterized by iron-dependent and lipid peroxide (LPO) accumulation, proposed by 2+ , which can produce OH through the Fenton reaction, and then react with polyunsaturated fatty acids in the plasma membrane to produce ROS, resulting in iron-regulated death